Welcome back to the Abstract! These are the studies this week that searched for the ur-animals, wandered the poles, rained on Mars, and destroyed the solar system.

First, scientists present new evidence that the first animals appeared more than 800 million years ago, a truly ancient origin that suggests our metazoan ancestors survived a period known as Snowball Earth, when our planet is thought to have been nearly completely frozen. Then: Earth’s poles won’t sit still, the sepulchral stuff of life, and a dramatically shortened lifespan for our solar neighborhood.

As always, for more of my work, check out my book First Contact: The Story of Our Obsession with Aliens, or subscribe to my personal newsletter The BeX Files. 

I trace my ancestry to Snowball Earth

Durbin, Orin Lole et al. “Re-evaluating molecular clock maximum age calibrations revives pre-Ediacaran divergence estimates for animals.” Science Advances.

When did the first animals emerge on Earth? It’s a question that has provoked centuries of scholarly debate, and also inspired some wonderful answers in myth and legend (I’m partial to the Bible’s tidy solution: day six checklist).

The earliest animals that are clearly preserved in the fossil record lived during the Ediacara period some 574 million years ago, but the origins of our diverse metazoan family are likely much older. Now, scientists suggest that animals may have appeared on Earth a whopping 800 million years ago, during the ancient Tonian era, according to a new estimate of the dawn of animals.

“The timing of the origin of animals on Earth has puzzled scientists for centuries,” said researchers led by Orin Lole Durbin who was at the University of Oxford during this research and is now at Virginia Tech. “Unambiguous animal body fossils within the Ediacara Macrobiota provide a hard minimum calibration of 574 [million years] for crown Metazoa. Animals must have evolved before this date. Determining a maximum calibration for animals (a date at which they had not yet evolved) is a more complex task.”

Estimated timeline for the origin of animals based on molecular clock analyses. The grey bar on the right of the image is the origin of animals based on an Ediacaran upper calibration. The grey bar to the left is the origin based on older deposits in the Tonian period, as suggested by the new study. Image: Orin Lole Durbin.

The team turned to molecular clock analysis, a technique that uses the rate of genetic mutations in lineages as a rough way to reconstruct evolutionary timelines. The researchers focused on two fossil deposits—China’s Weng'an Biota and Mongolia’s Kheseen Biota, which date back 590 and 550 million years respectively—to extend the possible timeline of animals back more than 200 million years earlier. 

If animals really did appear in the Tonian era, it means that our earliest metazoan ancestors survived episodes of so-called “Snowball Earth,” when our planet was almost fully covered in ice. These early critters were likely simple marine sponges and comb jellies that lived for hundreds of millions of years until their descendents exploded into the kaleidoscopic variety of animals that persist to this day.

“The possibility of a pre-Ediacaran origin and diversification of animals means we cannot discount hypotheses that link the timing of animal diversification to Cryogenian Snowball Earth glaciations,” according to the study. “The causes and trajectory of animal evolution will remain uncertain until paleontological and geochemical data provide sufficient confidence in maximum calibrations to ensure a reliable timescale.”

In short: Respect your sponge elders.  

In other news…

A pole-ing error

Domeier, Mathew et al. “Quadrupolar sea level fluctuations reveal episodes of rapid polar wander.” Science.

Earth is a roiling mess of shifting continents and squishy innards, a situation that constantly throws its spin axis off balance and prompts the geographic poles to drift. This phenomenon, known as true polar wander (TPW), is distinct from Earth’s wandering magnetic poles, which are shaped by interior core-mantle processes. 

Right now, TPW is clocked at a slow rate of 10 centimeters per year, but scientists have found evidence of “fast” episodes of TPW that pushed the poles off by thousands of miles over millions of years, which has knock-on effects for ocean and land distribution across the globe. 

A team has now pinpointed several of these fast episodes over the past 320 million years, “confirming that protracted rapid TPW has occurred on Earth and that couplings among Earth’s rotational dynamics, mantle processes, and surface environments can be strongly episodic,” according to their study.

“These findings refute the view of TPW as negligible or persistently slow and highlight the need to consider TPW as an episodic control on sea level change and likely other global environmental and biological dynamics,” said researchers led by Mathew Domeier of the University of Oslo. 

In addition to these long-term natural changes, recent human activity has slightly impacted TPW, especially the construction of dams and the glacial melt of anthropogenic climate change. So the next time you address a letter to Santa at the North Pole for your kid—or yourself, no judgement—make sure you have the most up-to-date coordinates.

It’s raining formaldehyde—formalallelujah! 

Koyama, Shungo et al “Global Distribution of Atmospheric Formaldehyde Deposition Correlated with Water Vapor on a Warm Early Mars.” The Planetary Science Journal.

Formaldehyde, the toxic chemical, has a bit of a morbid reputation—exposure to it can be fatal and it’s a common ingredient used to embalm corpses. But, paradoxically, formaldehyde (H₂CO) also helped pave the way for the emergence of life on Earth as a precursor of bioessential elements such as sugars, amino acids, and nucleobases.

If life ever flourished on Mars, formaldehyde would likely also have been part of the story. To map out the possible distribution of the chemical on ancient Mars, scientists ran models of its atmosphere between 3.6 and 3.8 billion years ago, when the red planet was warmer and wetter. The results showed that formaldehyde was strongly associated with water vapor, suggesting that the chemical rained down from the ancient skies into Martian waterways.

“Significant atmospheric deposition of H₂CO is observed over water bodies, including the northern ocean,” said researchers led by Shungo Koyama of Tohoku University. “We suggest that basins adjacent to persistently humid regions, which likely experienced H₂CO accumulation and subsequent organic synthesis, could be potential landing sites for future missions to investigate ancient chemical evolution and whether it led to the origin of life.”

Hopefully, future missions to Mars will leave any signs of life with no place left to formalde-hide. 

Update the cosmic actuary tables

Batygin, Konstantin et al. “Terminal Instability of the Solar System Triggered by Stochastic Solar Mass Loss.” The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

I hate to be the bearer of bad news, but the solar system has been diagnosed with terminal instability and has been given a mere six billion years to live.  

That’s the upshot of a new study that modelled the solar system’s future as the Sun becomes a red giant star and, ultimately, collapses into a stellar husk called a white dwarf. 

Though the dying Sun will consume Mercury, Venus, and perhaps even Earth, scientists have previously assumed that the giant outer planets might be relatively unscathed by its death—perhaps surviving for up to 100 billion years after the main-sequence lights go out. But updated simulations suggest that these distant objects may be thrown into fatal chaos as early as the red giant phase, and that they are unlikely to survive more than a billion years after the Sun’s transition to a white dwarf.

“[Isaac] Newton, contemplating the drifting orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, suspected that the planetary order was mortal, and three centuries of celestial mechanics…have progressively deferred that verdict, most recently to timescales far beyond the age of the Universe,” said researchers led by Konstantin Batygin of the California Institute of Technology. “Our results return the solar system’s dissolution to astrophysically familiar territory, and relocate its cause: not the slow seep of chaos, nor the chance encounter with a passing star, but the Sun itself, which in dying does not merely enlarge the planetary system it built—it shakes it, and more often than not, spills it.”

“Newton’s envisioned instability is real after all,” the team. “He was mistaken only about the perpetrator.”

What a great story to kick off this spooky season! Planetary order is mortal, but cosmic horror is eternal. 

Thanks for reading! See you next week.

A federal judge in Oklahoma ruled Thursday that a police officer violated the Fourth Amendment rights of a woman accused of meth trafficking when he searched her license plate in Flock’s automated license plate reader system simply because her license plate was from California, then used her travel history as part of the reason to search her car. The judge’s opinion is one of the first times a federal judge has decided Flock searches can be unconstitutional, and suggested that Flock’s network is “a type of indiscriminate mass surveillance.”

The officer’s “use of the ALPR Systems was an Unconstitutional Warrantless Search,” and “was not supported by probable cause, and it was done without a warrant in violation of [the defendant’s] Fourth Amendment rights,” the judge, Sara Hill, wrote, implying that the law enforcement officer should have obtained a warrant before searching for the vehicle in Flock’s system. There are currently more than a hundred thousand warrantless searches of the Flock system every month, according to audit logs viewed by 404 Media. Hill's decision will not set a binding precedent and there are several other cases throughout the nation considering the legality of warrantless ALPR searches.

Hill argued that previous judge opinions saying Flock searches were not a Fourth Amendment violation because they track cars in public do not consider the context that Flock’s nationwide network is quickly “approaching dragnet-type law enforcement practice,” and that courts should update their understanding of the technology moving forward. 

The circumstances of the court case are really interesting and highlight how commonplace Flock searches have become for police, and the depth of the information they can reveal. In May, a Tulsa County Deputy Sheriff named Freddie Alaniz was parked along the side of the highway in Oklahoma when he saw a Mazda SUV driven by a woman named Melisa Kyle with a California license plate pass by. “Alaniz then pulled his vehicle on the highway to follow the Mazda for no apparent reason other than the fact that it had a California license plate. Alaniz also ran a query on the Flock system for the California license plate number on the Mazda SUV,” Hill wrote. Alaniz then ostensibly pulled Kyle over for changing lanes without a turn signal.

Alaniz interrogated Kyle about her travel “while he continued to review the ALPR systems for the car she was driving,” the judge wrote. Alaniz made Kyle recount everything she had done in the last several days, and compared it to the Flock data. He told her that because she was only in California for a short period of time, he suspected her of trafficking drugs. He used her travel history as seen in the Flock system as part of the justification to search her car; she was found to have 91 pounds of meth in the vehicle. Hill ruled that all Flock evidence and all evidence from Alaniz’s search of the car must be thrown out. 

“The Fourth Amendment requires courts to draw a line when the cost is too great. Alaniz’s search in just the ALPR system provided him with more than 50 individual records of Kyle’s whereabouts across the country for an entire month,” Hill wrote. “The Court finds that because the ALPR systems Alaniz used to search Kyle’s historical location information intruded on her reasonable expectation of privacy in the whole of her physical movements, it was a search under the Fourth Amendment. Based on the information in the record, the only reason Alaniz conducted that search was because he saw her license plate was from California.”

“The factors that the government relies upon are the same type of circumstances that everyday Americans encounter on long road trips for many legitimate reasons. Many of us drive longer than we want to get to a desired destination, or to no destination at all other than the road and sights ahead,” she added. 

The decision is a landmark one, and comes in the aftermath of the Supreme Court’s Chatrie v United States decision that found police accessing a person’s digital data, including cell phone location data, constituted a search. 

“The opinion is pretty amazing. It recognizes one thing that courts ignore which is the sheer breadth of these systems, that they collect so much information about so many people in a way that sets them apart. This decision ascribes appropriate weight to the fact police are building out this massive database that can reveal incredibly intimate details of people’s lives,” Michael Soyfer, a lawyer at the Institute for Justice, which has studied Flock camera abuse and is litigating several cases on Fourth Amendment grounds, told 404 Media. “It’s extremely important. The way courts have resolved these cases previously has been way too myopic and has ignored the depths of these systems and the sweeping modes of surveillance that allow police to reconstruct the movements of anyone in the country.” 

Hill’s opinion also comes on the back of a decision earlier this week in a case the Institute for Justice brought. In that, a jury found a traffic stop scheme involving license plate reader scans done by U.S. Border Patrol as part of a predictive policing unit were unconstitutional. 

The new decision also immediately invalidates the core argument that Flock’s CEO Garrett Langley has made saying that Flock was not a constitutional issue. “You and I don’t get to pick what’s a constitutional violation and what’s not. We have judges, we have elected officials, there’s a process for that. We follow the law, we follow the Constitution. So far, in our belief and what will be for a long time, the courts have deemed this is not a warrantless search; this is a valid product as it relates to the Fourth Amendment. So I don’t see any change there,” Langley told The Drive in July, adding the issue was “pretty cut and dry.”

Notably, Hill suggested that other courts that have ruled Flock searches do not constitute a Fourth Amendment search were likely wrong to do so, and that they have not considered the widespread and automated context of the AI-powered surveillance system.

Previous decisions that ruled ALPR searches do not require a warrant have leaned on a Supreme Court case called United States v Knotts, in which police put a tracking device in a chemical container after being tipped off that an employee of a chemical plant was stealing from their employer. That case was decided in 1983 and found, “[a] person travelling in an automobile on public thoroughfares has no reasonable expectation of privacy in his movements from one place to another.” But Hill wrote, “that language exists in the context of the facts presented in the case. Rather than a large-scale, dragnet-type surveillance system like the ALPR technology in this case, the Court in Knotts was confronted with much less sophisticated technology.”

“The Court acknowledges that people, in at least a broad sense, do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their movements on a public roadway,” Hill wrote. “But by virtue of how ALPR technology works, Alaniz and other officers using these systems have access to a continuously updated location history for all vehicles caught on ALPR cameras within the network. This is a type of indiscriminate mass surveillance. It is not targeted on a single individual, as in Carpenter [another Supreme Court case about phone data specifically]. It is a tool that collects information about all vehicles that pass by any network-connected camera at all times, and it serves up the information to law enforcement on demand.”

We have seen several cases in which cops have used Flock data to pull people over because they have crossed state lines, then have worked backward to justify their travel patterns as a reason to search their vehicles. 

“We’re seeing that repeatedly with police flagging whatever they’ll call suspicious patterns of movement. Federal agents were using ALPRs to monitor cars making day trips across the border and back to manufacture a basis to stop them, interrogate the drivers and search them,” Soyfer said. “I think Flock is going to automate that using AI where cops can set alerts for those kinds of travel patterns. When we’re arguing these systems are very powerful and can show a lot about people’s movements, cops dismiss this as speculative or not possible, but then they deploy this strategy against people who they stop all the time.”

A Flock spokesperson told 404 Media, "Flock was not a party to this case. The ruling goes against the overwhelming weight of authority in similar cases across the country, including multiple recent decisions in Oklahoma, and we expect it will be appealed and ultimately overturned. This ruling is limited to the specific facts of this case. It does not set controlling precedent and does not affect law enforcement agencies’ continued use of these important public safety technologies."

This article has been updated with comment from Flock Safety.

The United States Postal Service is running a pilot program to put cameras in its mail carrier trucks that continuously scan roads and signs, map roadways and sidewalks, and improve “community safety,” according to a letter posted by a labor union and a statement from the agency to 404 Media. The idea is that, since the trucks are constantly traveling anyway, they can be used as a way to collect data, eventually potentially across the nation.

“The purpose of this pilot is to leverage the Postal Service’s unique ability to collect this valuable data due to the scale and frequency with which our fleet of postal vehicles travel the streets of every community across the country,” the letter, posted by NALC Branch 238 to Facebook, reads.

The letter, written by the United States Postal Service (USPS) Labor Relations to Brian Renfroe, the president of the National Association of Letter Carriers, says the USPS will partner with Next Base, a dashcam company, for the pilot. At the moment, the cameras will be used in the Washington, DC area, and will be installed on a hundred vehicles, the letter says.

On its website, Next Base offers a variety of dash cams, marketed to ordinary drivers, fleet operators, and ride share drivers. Its website says Next Base’s cameras record in up to 4K, and can capture every “license plate” with precision. The cameras don’t run automatic license plate reader (ALPR) software, though.

The letter continues, “Next Base cameras will scan and analyze roads, signage, maps roadways [sic] and sidewalks.” It says the cameras will be forward-facing, installed inside the trucks, and will begin recording as soon as the vehicle is in drive and away from the postal facility. “The cameras will not hinder the vehicle operator’s field of vision, nor does it record audio,” it adds.

The pilot was slated to start on September 21, and is expected to last several months, the letter says.

A spokesperson for the USPS told 404 Media in an email “The Postal Service is conducting a limited pilot to assess whether vehicle-mounted cameras can help identify roadway conditions and support community safety. The pilot includes privacy safeguards and requires no additional action from employees. Findings will inform any future decisions.”

USPS trucks already have 360 degree cameras that capture the outside of the vehicle for a period of time.

Michael Kalus posted a photo:

Michael Kalus posted a photo:

Michael Kalus posted a photo: